30/08/2026
*Important Doctrines from Various Subjects*
📝 *Top 50 Doctrines under CrPC/BNSS &IEA/BSA (with Sections & Case Laws)*
*1️⃣ Doctrine of Double Jeopardy*
Section: 300 CrPC / 357 BNSS
Case Law: Maqbool Hussain v. State of Bombay (1953)
*2️⃣ Doctrine of Speedy Trial*
Section: 309 CrPC / 346 BNSS
Case Law: Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979)
*3️⃣ Doctrine of Fair Trial*
Section: 273 CrPC / 290 BNSS
Case Law: Zahira Habibulla v. State of Gujarat (2004)
*4️⃣ Doctrine of Autrefois Acquit/Convict*
Section: 300 CrPC / 357 BNSS
Case Law: State of Bombay v. S.L.. Apte (1961)
*5️⃣ Doctrine of Issue Estoppel*
Section: Evidentiary Principle (Sectjon 40-43 Evidence/BSA)
Case Law: Piara Singh v. State of Punjab (1969)
*6️⃣ Doctrine of Presumption of Innocence*
Section: 313 CrPC / 343 BNSS
Case Law: Narayan v. State of Maharashtra (1976)
*7️⃣ Doctrine of Natural Justice*
Section: 273 CrPC / 290 BNSS
Case Law: Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978)
*8️⃣ Doctrine of Severability*
Section: General Principle
Case Law: RMD Chamarbaugwala v. Union of India (1957)
*9️⃣ Doctrine of Mala Fide*
Section: General Principle
Case Law: S.R. Venkataraman v. Union of India (1979)
*1️⃣0️⃣ Doctrine of Proportionality*
Section: 235(2) CrPC / 352 BNSS
Case Law: Om Kumar v. Union of India (2000)
*1️⃣1️⃣ Doctrine of Zero FIR*
Section: 154 CrPC / 173 BNSS
Case Law: Lalita Kumari v. Govt. of UP (2014)
*1️⃣2️⃣ Doctrine of Electronic Evidence*
Section: 61-65 Evidence/BSA
Case Law: Anvar P.V. v. P.K. Basheer (2014)
*1️⃣3️⃣ Doctrine of Victim Rights*
Section: 372 CrPC / 439A BNSS
Case Law: Rekha Murarka v. State of WB (2020)
*1️⃣4️⃣ Doctrine of Bail as Rule*
Section: 436-439 CrPC / 478-484 BNSS
Case Law: State of Rajasthan v. Balchand (1978)
*1️⃣5️⃣ Doctrine of Compounding Offence*
Section: 320 CrPC / 360 BNSS
Case Law: Gian Singh v. State of Punjab (2012)
*1️⃣6️⃣ Doctrine of Cognizance*
Section: 190 CrPC / 210 BNSS
Case Law: R.R. Chari v. State of UP (1951)
*1️⃣7️⃣ Doctrine of Territorial Jurisdiction*
Section: 177 CrPC / 212 BNSS
Case Law: Naresh Kavarchand Khatri v. State of Gujarat (2008)
*1️⃣8️⃣ Doctrine of Transfer of Cases*
Section: 406 CrPC / 418 BNSS
Case Law: K. Anbazhagan v. State of Karnataka (2015)
*1️⃣9️⃣ Doctrine of Test Identification*
Section: 9 Evidence/BSA
Case Law: Budh Singh v. State of UP (1970)
*2️⃣0️⃣ Doctrine of Hostile Witness*
Section: 154 Evidence/BSA
Case Law: Sat Paul v. Delhi Administration (1976)
*2️⃣1️⃣ Doctrine of Dying Declaration*
Section: 32 Evidence/BSA
Case Law: Khushal Rao v. State of Bombay (1958)
*2️⃣2️⃣ Doctrine of Plea Bargaining*
Section: 265A-L CrPC / 293-302 BNSS
Case Law: State of Gujarat v. Natwar Harchandji (2005)
*2️⃣3️⃣ Doctrine of Compulsory FIR*
Section: 154 CrPC / 173 BNSS
Case Law: Lalita Kumari v. Govt. of UP (2014)
*2️⃣4️⃣ Doctrine of Protective Custody*
Section: 151 CrPC / 173(3)(4) BNSS
Case Law: Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar (2014)
*2️⃣5️⃣ Doctrine of Anticipatory Bail*
Section: 438 CrPC / 482 BNSS
Case Law: Gurbaksh Singh Sibbia v. State of Punjab (1980)
*2️⃣6️⃣ Doctrine of Non-Cognizable Offence*
Section: 155 CrPC / 175 BNSS
Case Law: State of Haryana v. Bhajan Lal (1992)
*2️⃣7️⃣ Doctrine of Preventive Detention*
Section: 151 CrPC / 173 BNSS
Case Law: A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950)
*2️⃣8️⃣ Doctrine of Summons & Warrants*
Section: 61-90 CrPC / 68-97 BNSS
Case Law: Kartar Singh v. State of Punjab (1994)
*2️⃣9️⃣ Doctrine of Confession*
Section: 164 CrPC/ 183 BNSS
Case Law: Dagdu v. State of Maharashtra (1977)
*3️⃣0️⃣ Doctrine of Protection Against Self-Incrimination*
Section: 161(2) CrPC / 180(2) BNSS
Case Law: Nandini Sathpathy v. P.L. Dani (1978)
*3️⃣1️⃣ Doctrine of Charge Framing*
Section: 211-224 CrPC / 227-239 BNSS
Case Law: State of Bihar v. Ramesh Singh (1977)
*3️⃣2️⃣ Doctrine of Compelling Attendance*
Section: 61-90 CrPC / 68-97 BNSS
Case Law: Abdul Rehman Antulay v. R.S. Nayak (1988)
*3️⃣3️⃣ Doctrine of Acquittal on Benefit of Doubt*
Section: General Principle
Case Law: Kali Ram v. State of Himachal Pradesh (1973)
*3️⃣4️⃣ Doctrine of Sentence Hearing*
Section: 235(2) CrPC / 352 BNSS
Case Law: Santa Singh v. State of Punjab (1976)
*3️⃣5️⃣ Doctrine of Pardoning Power*
Section: 306-307 CrPC / 337-338 BNSS
Case Law: Kehar Singh v. State (1988)
*3️⃣6️⃣ Doctrine of Judicial Review on Investigation*
Section: 156(3) CrPC / 175(3) BNSS
Case Law: Sakiri Vasu v. State of UP (2007)
*3️⃣7️⃣ Doctrine of Appeal*
Section: 372-394 CrPC / 421-455 BNSS
Case Law: P.S.R. Sadhanantham v. Arunachalam (1980)
*3️⃣8️⃣ Doctrine of Revision*
Section: 397-401 CrPC / 417-420 BNSS
Case Law: Amit Kapoor v. Ramesh Chander (2012)
*3️⃣9️⃣ Doctrine of Compounding Civil Nature Offences*
Section: 320 CrPC / 360 BNSS
Case Law: JIK Industries v. Amarlal V. Jumani (2012)
*4️⃣0️⃣ Doctrine of Reinvestigation*
Section: 173(8) CrPC / 193 BNSS
Case Law: Vinay Tyagi v. Irshad Ali (2013).
*4️⃣1️⃣ Doctrine of Default Bail*
Section: 167(2) CrPC / 187(2) BNSS
Case Law: Rakesh Kumar Paul v. State of Assam (2017)
*4️⃣2️⃣ Doctrine of Judicial Custody*
Section: 167 CrPC / 187 BNSS
Case Law: CBI v. Anupam J. Kulkarni (1992)
*4️⃣3️⃣ Doctrine of Compulsory Appearance*
Section: 273 CrPC / 290 BNSS
Case Law: Mohd. Ajmal Kasab v. State of Maharashtra (2012)
*4️⃣4️⃣ Doctrine of Witness Protection*
Section: 309 CrPC / 346 BNSS
Case Law: Mahender Chawla v. Union of India (2018)
*4️⃣5️⃣ Doctrine of Victim Impact*
Section: 372 CrPC / 439A BNSS
Case Law: Ankush Maruti Shinde v. State of Maharashtra (2009)
*4️⃣6️⃣ Doctrine of Fair Investigation*
Section: Sec 156 CrPC / 175 BNSS
Case Law: Manohar Lal Sharma v. Principal Secy. (2014)
*4️⃣7️⃣ Doctrine of Cross-Examination*
Section: 137 Evidence/BSA
Case Law: State of Kerala v. Rasheed (2019)
*4️⃣8️⃣ Doctrine of Witness Hostility*
Section: 154 Evidence/BSA
Case Law: Sat Paul v. Delhi Administration (1976)
*4️⃣9️⃣ Doctrine of Contemporanea Expositio*
Section: General Principle of Statutory Interpretation
Case Law: K.P. Varghese v. ITO (1981)
*5️⃣0️⃣ Doctrine of Justice Delay is Justice Denied*
Section: 309 CrPC / 479 BNSS.
Case Law: Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979)
📘 *LIST OF DOCTRINES - THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA*
1. *Ejusdem Generis* – Means of the same kind. *(Article 12)*
2. *Ab Initio* – Means for the very beginning. *(Article 13)*
3. *Doctrine of Judicial Review* – A law is declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court or High Court if it contravenes any of the Fundamental Rights. *(Articles 13, 32, 226)*
4. *Doctrine of Eclipse* – The law which contravenes Fundamental Rights is not void ab initio; it remains in a morbid condition and unenforceable. It is not totally wiped out from the statute book. *(Article 13)*
5. *Doctrine of Severability* – The whole law is not void under Article 13; only that portion which contravenes Fundamental Rights is void, and the rest remains operative. *(Article 13)*
6. *Doctrine of Rule of Law* – It means supremacy of law and absence of arbitrary power. *(Article 14)*
7. *Principle of Reasonable Classification* – Equals cannot be treated unequally and unequals cannot be treated equally. *(Article 14)*
8. *Audi Alteram Partem* – Means no one should be condemned unheard. *(Articles 14, 21, 22)*
9. *Wednesbury Principle* – Used to adjudge the discretion provided to the executive under the statute. *(Article 14)*
10. *Lex Non a Rege Est Violanda* – Means the law must not be violated even by the king. *(Article 14)*
11. *Pari Passu* – Means on equal footing. *(Article 14)*
12. *Rex Quod Injustum Est Facere Non Potest* – Means the king cannot do what is unjust. *(Article 14)*
13. *Principle of Proportionality of Restrictions* – Restrictions should not be arbitrary or beyond what is required for achieving the object. *(Article 19)*
14. *Ex Post Facto* – A law which imposes penalty retrospectively. *(Article 20)*
15. *Double Jeopardy* – No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once. *(Article 20)*
16. *Nemo Debet Bis Vexari Pro Una et Eadem Causa* – Means a man shall not be vexed twice for one and the same cause. *(Article 20)*
17. *Nemobis Punitur Pro Eodem Delicto* – Means no one can be punished twice for the same offence. *(Article 20)*
18. *Autrefois Convict* – Refers to a defendant’s plea that he has already been tried and convicted for the same offence. *(Article 20)*
19. *Nova Constitutio Futuris Formam Imponere Debet, Non Praeteritis* – Means a new law ought to be prospective and not retrospective in operation. *(Article 20)*
20. *Doctrine of Self-Incrimination* – No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself. *(Article 20)*
21. *Nemo Tenetur Prodere Accusare Seipsum* – Means no man is bound to accuse himself. *(Article 20)*
22. *Nemo Punitur Pro Alieno Delicto* – Means no one is to be punished for the crime or wrong of another. *(Article 20)*
23. *Ubi Jus Ibi Remedium* – Means where there is a right, there is a remedy. *(Article 21)*
24. *Doctrine of Rarest of the Rare* – Death penalty can only be given in rarest of rare cases. *(Article 21)*
25. *Doctrine of Public Trust* – Natural resources like air, water, etc. are meant for general use and cannot be limited by private ownership. *(Article 21)*
26. *Precautionary Principle* – The State and authorities must prevent and attack causes of environmental degradation. *(Article 21)*
27. *Polluter Pays Principle* – One who carries on hazardous activities is liable to make good the loss caused to another. *(Article 21)*
28. *Habeas Corpus* – Means you shall have the body. *(Articles 32, 226)*
29. *Locus Standi* – Refers to the right of a party to bring an action before the court. *(Articles 32, 226)*
30. *Mandamus* – Means we command. *(Articles 32, 226)*
31. *Quo Warranto* – Means by what authority. *(Articles 32, 226)*
32. *Certiorari* – A writ by which a higher court reviews a case tried in a lower court. *(Articles 32, 226)*
33. *Doctrine of Distributive Justice* – Ensures economic justice to minimize inequalities and promote welfare of the people. *(Articles 38, 39)*
34. *Principle of Collective Responsibility* – All members of the government are unanimous in support of its policies and actions. *(Article 75)*
35. *Principle of Individual Responsibility* – Each minister is responsible to the legislature for every action taken or omitted in his ministry. *(Article 75)*
36. *Sine Die* – Means without any future date being designated. *(Article 85)*
37. *Ad Hoc* – Means for the special purpose. *(Article 127)*
38. *Nunc Pro Tunc* – Means now for then. *(Article 136)*
39. *Stare Decisis* – Means to stand by precedents. *(Article 141)*
40. *Obiter Dicta* – Refers to observations made by a judge which are not essential for decision. (*Article 141)*
41. *Ratio Decidendi* – Means the reason for the decision given by the court. *(Article 141)*
42. *Principle of Consistency of Law* – A division bench ought to follow the earlier decision of a larger bench. *(Article 141)*
43. *Boni Judicis Est Ampliare Jurisdictionem* – Means it is part of a good judge to enlarge his jurisdiction. *(Article 226)*
44. *Theory of Territorial Nexus* – The State Legislature cannot make extra-territorial laws except when there is sufficient connection between the State and the subject matter. *(Article 245)*
45. *Plenary Power of Legislature* – Refers to the absolute power to enact laws, subject to constitutional limits. *(Article 246)*
46. *Ancillary or Incidental Power* – Means power to legislate on incidental or ancillary matters related to the main subject. *(Article 246)*
47. *Doctrine of Pith and Substance* – Used to determine the true nature or object of a legislation. *(Article 246)*
48. *Doctrine of Colorable Legislation* – Means what cannot be done directly cannot be done indirectly. *(Article 246)*
49. *Bona Vacantia* – Refers to goods without an owner. *(Article 296)*
50. *Doctrine of Eminent Domain* – Refers to the right of the State to acquire private property for public use with compensation. *(Article 300A)*
51. *Imperium in Imperio* – Means a sovereignty within a sovereignty. *(Article 324)*
52. *In Foro Conscientiae* – Means in the form of conscience. *(Article 363)*
53. *Doctrine of Basic Structure* – States that the power of amendment cannot be exercised to take away or destroy the basic structure of the Constitution. *(Article 368)*
📑 *LIST OF DOCTRINES - INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT (IEA) 1872 / BHARATIYA SAKSHYA ADHINIYAM (BSA), 2023*
1. *Ipso Facto (Section 4 IEA / 2 BSA)*
It means “by that very fact.” It refers to something that is self-evident or automatically true by its very nature.
2. *Res Gestae (Section 6 IEA / 4 BSA)*
It means “things said and done in the course of the same transaction.” It allows statements that are part of the same transaction to be admissible as evidence.
3. *Ab Extra (Section 6 IEA / 4 BSA)*
It means “from outside.” It is used when considering evidence or circumstances that originate externally to the main transaction.
4. *Last Seen Theory (Section 7 IEA / 5 BSA)*
This theory applies when the time gap between the accused and the deceased being last seen together and the deceased being found dead is so short that the possibility of any person other than the accused being the author of the crime becomes impossible.
5. *Corpus Delicti (Section 8 IEA / 6 BSA)*
It means “body of the crime.” It refers to the essential facts that prove that a crime has actually been committed.
6. *Test Identification Parade (Section 9 IEA / 7 BSA)*
It is conducted to test the veracity of a witness and his capacity to identify unknown persons related to the crime.
7. *Theory of Agency (Section 10 IEA / 8 BSA)*
Every conspirator is an agent of the others in carrying out the object of the conspiracy; hence, acts and declarations of one conspirator can be used as evidence against others.
8. *Alibi (Section 11 IEA / 9 BSA)*
It means “elsewhere.” It is a defence that the accused was somewhere else at the time the crime was committed and hence could not have committed it.
9. *Without Prejudice Admissions (Section 23 IEA / 21 BSA)*
Admissions made by parties while genuinely negotiating the settlement of an existing dispute are privileged and cannot be used as evidence in court at a later stage.
10. *Doctrine of Confirmation by Subsequent Facts or Events (Section 27 IEA / 23 (Proviso) BSA)*
Every part of the statement made by an accused in custody must be confirmed by subsequent discovery or events to make it admissible in court.
11. *Nemo Moriturus Praesumitur Mentire (Section 32 IEA / 26 BSA)*
It means “no one at the point of death is presumed to lie.” This doctrine forms the basis for the admissibility of dying declarations.
12. *Causa Proxima Non Remota Spectatur (Section 32 IEA / 26 BSA)*
It means “the immediate and not the remote cause is to be considered.” Only the direct cause of an event is relevant, not remote ones.
13. *Doctrine of Dying Declaration (Section 32(1) IEA / 26 BSA)*
A dying declaration is the statement made by a person who is about to die, explaining the cause or circumstances of his death, and is admissible as evidence.
14. *Necessity Rule (Sections 32 and 45 IEA / 26 and 39(1) BSA)*
The principle is that if a person who has firsthand knowledge of facts cannot appear before the court due to death or disability, his knowledge should be transmitted to the court through another person.
15. *Rule of Res Judicata (Section 40 IEA / 34 BSA)*
Once there has been a final judgment on a fact, no subsequent proceeding on the same fact shall be allowed; the earlier judgment remains relevant and conclusive.
16. *In Personam (Section 43 IEA / 37 BSA)*
It means “against the person.” It refers to judgments or rights enforceable against specific individuals.
17. *Res Inter Alia Acta (Section 46 IEA / 40 BSA)*
It means “a thing done between others.” When the opinion of an expert is relevant, any fact that supports or contradicts that opinion also becomes relevant.
18. *Rule of Exclusion of Hearsay (Section 60 IEA / 55 BSA)*
It means oral evidence must be direct. Hearsay evidence (second-hand information) is not admissible.
19. *Best Evidence Rule (Sections 60, 64, 91 IEA / 55, 59, 94 BSA)*
The best available evidence should be produced before the court. For documents, the original document itself must be presented.
20. *Prima Facie (Section 101 IEA / 104 BSA)*
It means “on the face of it.” It refers to evidence that is sufficient to establish a fact unless disproved.
21. *Ei Incumbit Probatio Qui Dicit Non Qui Negat (Section 101 IEA / 104 BSA)*
The burden of proof lies on the person who asserts, not on the one who denies.
22. *Affirmanti Non Neganti Incumbit Probatio (Section 101 IEA / 104 BSA)*
The burden of proof rests upon the person who affirms, not upon the person who denies.
23. *Affirmatio Non Neganti Est Probare (Section 101 IEA / 104 BSA)*
It means “he who affirms must prove.” A person making a claim must produce proof in support of it.
24. *Actori Incumbit Onus Probandi (Section 102 IEA / 105 BSA)*
It means “the burden of proof is on the plaintiff.” The person who brings the case must prove his allegations.
25. *Res Ipsa Loquitur (Section 106 IEA / 109 BSA)*
It means “the thing speaks for itself.” It allows negligence to be inferred from the nature of the accident without direct evidence.
26. *Filiation Non Potest Probari (Section 112 IEA / 116 BSA)*
It means “filiation cannot be proved.” Paternity is presumed under certain legal circumstances and cannot be questioned easily.
27. *Pater Est Quem Nuptiae Demonstrant (Section 112 IEA / 116 BSA)*
It means “the father is he whom the marriage points out.” The law presumes that a child born during lawful wedlock is the legitimate child of the husband.
28. *Semper Praesumitur Pro Legitimatione Puerorum (Section 112 IEA / 116 BSA)*
It means “everything is presumed in favor of the legitimacy of children.” The law always presumes legitimacy unless clearly disproved.
29. *Doctrine of Reverse Burden (Sections 113A and 113B IEA / 117 and 118 BSA)*
When the burden of proof is reversed by law, the accused must prove his innocence beyond reasonable doubt once certain facts are established (e.g., dowry death or abetment of su***de).
30. *Omnia Praesumuntur Rite et Solemniter Esse Acta (Section 114 IEA / 119 BSA)*
It means “all things are presumed to have been done correctly and solemnly.” Acts are presumed to be regular and lawful unless proved otherwise.
31. *Allegans Contraria Non Est Admittenda (Section 115 IEA / 121 BSA)*
It means “contrary allegations will not be heard.” A person cannot make contradictory statements before the court.
32. *Ipse Dixit (Section 115 IEA / 121 BSA)*
It means “he himself said it.” It refers to a statement that is asserted without proof, merely on the authority of the speaker.
33. *Doctrine of Estoppel (Section 115 IEA / 121 BSA)*
A person will not be allowed to deny or contradict what he has previously affirmed by his words or conduct if another has relied upon it.
34. *Doctrine of Promissory / Quasi / New Estoppel (Section 115 IEA / 121 BSA)*
When one party makes a promise intending that the other will act upon it, and the other does act upon it, the promisor is bound by that promise even if no formal contract exists.
35. *Salus Populi Est Suprema Lex (Section 123 IEA / 129 BSA)*
It means “regard for the public welfare is the highest law.” Public interest takes precedence over private interest.
36. *Evidence Has to Be Weighed, Not Counted (Section 134 IEA / 139 BSA)*
No particular number of witnesses is required to prove any fact; the quality of evidence matters more than the quantity.
37. *Judicis Est Judicare Secundum Allegata et Probata (Section 136 IEA / 141 BSA)*
It means “it is the duty of a judge to decide according to the allegations and the proofs.” The judge must rely on evidence and pleadings before the court.
38. *Rule of Corroboration (Section 157 IEA / 160 BSA)*
Earlier statements of witnesses may be used to confirm and support their later testimony in court.
39. *Subpoena Duces Tecum (Section 162 IEA / 165 BSA )*
It means a writ ordering a person to attend court and bring relevant documents or evidence.
✅ *Doctrines Under Indian Contract Act, 1872*
◾ *1. Doctrine of Privity of Contract (Section 2(h))*
This doctrine states that only parties to a contract can enforce its terms. A stranger to the contract cannot sue or be sued. However, exceptions exist, such as in family arrangements, trusts, and land covenants, where a third party can enforce a contract for their benefit.
◾ *2. Doctrine of Consideration (Section 2(d))*
A contract must be supported by "consideration," meaning something of value exchanged between parties. Consideration need not be adequate but must be real and lawful. It can be past, present, or future. Exceptions include contracts made on account of natural love and affection, promises to compensate for past voluntary services, and promises to pay time-barred debts.
◾ *3. Doctrine of Frustration (Section 56)*
This doctrine applies when a contract becomes impossible or unlawful to perform due to events beyond the parties' control. Frustration discharges the contract, and parties are relieved of their obligations. Examples include destruction of the subject matter, supervening illegality, or the occurrence of an event that renders performance fundamentally different from what was contemplated.
◾ *4. Doctrine of Restitution (Sections 64 & 65)*
This doctrine ensures that parties restore any benefits received under a contract that is later found to be void or becomes void. Section 64 applies when a voidable contract is rescinded, while Section 65 applies when a contract becomes void. The aim is to prevent unjust enrichment.
◾ *5. Doctrine of Quantum Meruit (Section 70)*
This doctrine allows a party to claim reasonable compensation for services rendered when there is no express agreement on remuneration. It applies when a contract becomes void, is breached, or when work is done without a formal agreement.
◾ *6. Doctrine of Estoppel (Section 121 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023)*
This doctrine prevents a person from denying the truth of a representation they previously made, if another person has acted on that representation to their detriment. It ensures fairness and prevents parties from going back on their words.
◾ *7. Doctrine of Agency (Sections 182-238)*
This governs relationships where one person (agent) acts on behalf of another (principal). It outlines the agent's authority, duties, and liabilities, as well as the principal's obligations and rights.
◾ *8. Doctrine of Specific Performance (Specific Relief Act, 1963)*
This allows a court to order a party to perform their contractual obligations when monetary damages are inadequate. It is typically applied in contracts involving unique goods or land.
*📘 DOCTRINES UNDER INDIAN PARTNERSHIP ACT, 1932*
*🔹1. Doctrine of Mutual Agency (Section 18)*
Each partner is both a principal and an agent of the firm. Acts of one bind all partners if done in the course of business.
*🔹2. Doctrine of Holding Out (Section 28)*
A person who represents or knowingly allows himself to be represented as a partner is liable as if he were a partner.
*🔹3. Doctrine of Partnership at Will (Section 7)*
A partnership is "at will" if there is no fixed duration or specific termination clause. It can be dissolved by any partner with written notice.
*🔹4. Doctrine of Implied Authority (Section 19)*
A partner has implied authority to act on behalf of the firm in usual business matters. This authority does not extend to exceptional acts unless expressly permitted.
*🔹5. Doctrine of Liability of Incoming and Outgoing Partners (Sections 31–38)*
An incoming partner is liable only for future acts. An outgoing partner remains liable for past acts unless proper public notice is given.
*🔹6. Doctrine of Non-Registration (Section 69)*
An unregistered firm cannot enforce contractual rights through a court. Exceptions exist for third-party suits and internal firm matters like dissolution
*🔹7. Doctrine of Notice (Sections 24 & 25)*
Knowledge of a partner, acquired in the course of business, is deemed to be knowledge of the firm.
📚 *6 Key Doctrines – Sale of Goods Act, 1930*
*1. Caveat Emptor* – *Sec 16 "Buyer Beware!"*
Buyer must check goods before buying. Seller is liable only in case of fraud or implied warranty.
*2. Nemo Dat Quod Non Habet – Sec 27*
"No one can give what they don’t own."
Buyer doesn’t get a better title than the seller.
*Exception: Sale by estoppel, mercantile agent, etc.*
*3. Passing of Property – Sec 18 to 26*
Ownership transfers when parties intend. In unascertained goods, it passes only after goods are selected/appropriated.
*4. Unascertained Goods – Sec 18*
Until goods are clearly identified, ownership stays with the seller. Applies to future/bulk goods.
*5. Acceptance & Rejection – Sec 41 & 42*
Once goods are accepted, the buyer can’t reject them later unless there’s a hidden issue/defect.
*6. Estoppel – Exception to Sec 27*
If the owner allows someone to sell as if they own it, they can’t later deny the sale. Protects honest buyers.
